Why Does Every State Have Its Own Laws? · 為什麼每一州的法律不一樣？

Big idea · 一句話看懂

Federalism divides power between two levels of government. Some powers belong to the national government, some remain with the states, and some are shared. That is why one question can have fifty different answers across the country, and why, when the two levels collide, the Constitution's Supremacy Clause decides which law prevails.
聯邦制把權力分給兩層政府：有些權力屬於全國政府，有些留給各州，有些兩邊共有。所以同一個問題，在全國可以有五十種不同的答案；而兩層衝突時，由憲法的最高條款決定哪一邊的法律優先。

3D Model · 3D 模型

Two Layers of Government on One Map 一張地圖上的兩層政府

The fifty states and the District of Columbia sit on the map, and a translucent gold layer above them stands for the national government. Choose a power. If it belongs to the national government, the gold layer lights up and the states dim; if it belongs to the states, the states light up; if both may use it, both glow. Below, choose what the height and color of the states should show, or switch to tiles sized by population. Click a state to read its value.
地圖上是五十州和哥倫比亞特區，上方一層半透明的金色板子代表全國政府。選一項權力：屬於全國政府的，金色那一層會亮、各州變暗；屬於各州的，各州會亮；兩邊都能用的，兩層都亮。下面可以選各州的高度與顏色要代表什麼，或切換成依人口大小的方塊。點一個州，可以讀出它的數值。

Drag to look around · 拖曳轉動視角　Click a state · 點一個州　Scroll or pinch to zoom · 滾輪／雙指縮放

This 3D model needs WebGL, which this browser does not support. The buttons and the panel still work, and so do the reading and the two activities below, including the flat map.
這個瀏覽器不支援 WebGL，無法顯示 3D 模型；按鈕和說明欄照樣能用，下面的課文和兩個小互動（包括平面地圖）也都能用。

Who decides? · 這件事誰管？

National government · 全國政府

Coining money鑄造貨幣

Only the national government issues money. The Constitution gives the power to Congress and, in a separate clause, forbids the states to coin money. That is why a dollar is the same in every state.只有全國政府發行貨幣。憲法把這項權力交給國會，又在另一條明文禁止各州鑄幣。所以一塊錢在每一州都一樣。

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; …Article I, Section 10

On the map · 地圖上顯示的

Choose a power: which layer lights up? · 選一項權力：哪一層會亮？

Height and color show · 高度與顏色代表

Labels標示

The national government
全國政府
The states: low to high on the chosen question
各州：所選題目的數值由低到高
No value (for example, the District of Columbia is not a state)
沒有數值（例如哥倫比亞特區不是州）

Alaska and Hawaii are moved and drawn smaller so that they fit; the other states keep approximately their true relative areas. The colors run from dark teal to gold and are chosen to avoid the red and blue that American news uses for the two parties. Territories such as Puerto Rico are not shown.
阿拉斯加和夏威夷搬了位置、縮小了才放得進來；其他各州的面積比例大致是真實的。顏色從深藍綠到金色，刻意避開美國新聞替兩大黨用的紅色與藍色。波多黎各等領地沒有畫出來。

State outlines: U.S. Census Bureau, 2024 Cartographic Boundary File cb_2024_us_state_20m (1:20,000,000). The Census Bureau states that these products are free to use with acknowledgement of the Bureau as the source; projected to Albers USA and simplified for this page. Census Bureau ↗ · 州界：美國人口普查局 2024 年州界檔 cb_2024_us_state_20m（1:2,000 萬）；人口普查局說明這些資料可以免費使用，但須註明來源為人口普查局；本頁投影為 Albers USA 並簡化。

Reading · 英文閱讀 High school and up · 高中以上

3

Unit 3: Why Does Every State Have Its Own Laws?

An American lives under two governments at the same time. One is the national government in Washington, usually called the federal government. The other is the government of the state where the person lives, with its own constitution, legislature, governor, and courts. Dividing power between two levels in this way is called federalism. It explains why the rate of sales tax, the requirements for a driver's license, and the punishment for many crimes change at a state line, while the dollar in a wallet, the stamp on a letter, and the rules for becoming a citizen are the same everywhere. In Madison's words, the two levels are “different agents and trustees of the people.”

一個美國人同時生活在兩個政府之下。一個是在華盛頓的全國政府，通常叫做聯邦政府（federal government）；另一個是他居住那一州的政府，有自己的憲法、議會、州長和法院。像這樣把權力分給兩層政府，叫做聯邦制（federalism）。它說明了為什麼銷售稅的稅率、考駕照的條件、許多罪行的刑罰，一跨過州界就不一樣；而皮夾裡的一塊錢、信封上的郵票、入籍的規則，卻到處都相同。用麥迪遜的話說，兩層政府是「人民不同的代理人與受託人」。

State governments came first. When the Constitution was written, the thirteen states already had governments of their own, and few Americans wanted to see them swallowed by a distant capital. The Constitution therefore gave the national government a list of specific powers and left the rest where it was. James Madison put it plainly in The Federalist No. 45. The powers given to the national government, he wrote, “are few and defined,” while those that remain with the states “are numerous and indefinite.” The national government would deal mainly with matters such as war, peace, and foreign commerce, and the states with the ordinary affairs of daily life.

州政府比聯邦政府先存在。寫憲法的時候，十三個州早已有了自己的政府，很少美國人願意看到它們被一個遙遠的首都吞掉。因此，憲法給全國政府一張列明的權力清單，其餘的權力則留在原處。麥迪遜在《聯邦論》第四十五篇講得很清楚：交給全國政府的權力「少而明確」，留給各州的則「多而不定」。全國政府主要處理戰爭、和平、對外貿易這一類的事，各州處理的是日常生活的一般事務。

Powers under the Constitution fall into a few groups. Enumerated powers are the ones listed for Congress, such as coining money, declaring war, and running the post office. Reserved powers are the ones left to the states by the Tenth Amendment, which says that powers not delegated to the United States “are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Education, family law, and most criminal law belong here. Concurrent powers, such as taxing, borrowing, and running courts, are held by both levels at once. Finally, some powers are denied to the states outright. No state may coin money or make a treaty, and no state may tax imports without the consent of Congress.

憲法之下的權力可以分成幾類。列舉的權力（enumerated powers）是明列給國會的，例如鑄幣、宣戰、經營郵政。保留的權力（reserved powers）是第十條修正案留給各州的——條文說，沒有授予合眾國的權力，「保留給各州，或保留給人民」；教育、家庭法和大部分的刑法屬於這一類。共有的權力（concurrent powers），例如徵稅、舉債、設立法院，則由兩層政府同時擁有。最後，有些權力是明文禁止各州行使的：任何一州都不得鑄幣、不得締結條約；未經國會同意，也不得對進口貨物課稅。

The boundary between the levels has never stayed still. In 1818 Maryland passed a law taxing a branch of the Bank of the United States, which Congress had created even though the Constitution says nothing about banks; the dispute reached the Supreme Court in 1819. In McCulloch v. Maryland, Chief Justice John Marshall upheld the bank under the clause that lets Congress make all laws “necessary and proper” for carrying out its listed powers, and he held that a state could not tax it, since “the power to tax involves the power to destroy.” Maryland had argued for reading the national government's powers narrowly. The Court read them to include the means of carrying them out, and held that a state may not obstruct a valid federal law.

兩層之間的界線從來沒有停在原地。1818 年，馬里蘭州通過法律，對美國銀行設在當地的分行課稅——這家銀行是國會設立的，雖然憲法對銀行一個字也沒提；這場爭議在 1819 年打到最高法院。在 McCulloch v. Maryland 案中，首席大法官馬歇爾援引容許國會制定一切「必要且適當」法律以執行其列舉權力的條款，判定這家銀行合憲；他也判定州不得對它課稅，因為「課稅的權力包含毀滅的權力」。馬里蘭主張對全國政府的權力作狹義的解讀；最高法院則把這些權力解讀為包括執行它們的手段，並判定州不得阻撓有效的聯邦法律。

Two other tools have widened the national government's reach. The first is the Commerce Clause, which lets Congress regulate commerce “among the several States.” In Gibbons v. Ogden in 1824, the Supreme Court held that commerce includes navigation, so that steamboats licensed by Congress could not be shut out by a monopoly that New York had granted. Over time Congress has relied on that clause for a growing share of national laws, and how far it reaches is still argued. The second tool is money. Congress can attach conditions to the funds it sends the states. In 1984 Congress passed a law that withheld part of a state's federal highway funds unless it made twenty-one the minimum age for buying alcohol, and by 1988 every state had done so.

另外有兩項工具擴大了全國政府的範圍。第一項是商業條款（Commerce Clause），讓國會管理「各州之間的貿易」。1824 年的 Gibbons v. Ogden 案，最高法院判定「貿易」包括航運，所以領有國會執照的汽船，不能被紐約州授予的獨占權擋在門外。隨著時間過去，國會越來越常援引這項條款來制定全國性的法律，而它能延伸到多遠，至今仍有爭論。第二項工具是錢：國會可以在撥給各州的款項上附加條件。1984 年，國會通過一項法律：州若不把購買酒類的最低年齡訂為二十一歲，就扣下它一部分的聯邦公路經費；到 1988 年，每一州都照做了。

Federalism has been used for good and ill. Before the Civil War, claims of “states' rights” were used to defend slavery, and later to defend racial segregation. Yet national power was also turned to slavery's ends: the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 required the return of people who had escaped, and some Northern states passed laws to resist it. After the war, the Fourteenth Amendment forbade any state to deny a person “the equal protection of the laws.” In 1957, when the governor of Arkansas used the state's National Guard to keep Black students out of Central High School in Little Rock, President Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce desegregation.

聯邦制被用來做過好事，也做過壞事。內戰之前，「州權」（states' rights）的主張被用來為奴隸制辯護，後來又被用來為種族隔離辯護。可是全國政府的權力也曾被用來替奴隸制服務：1850 年的《逃亡奴隸法》要求交還逃走的人，而北方有些州通過法律加以抵制。內戰之後，第十四條修正案禁止任何一州拒絕給予任何人「法律的平等保護」。1957 年，阿肯色州州長動用州的國民警衛隊（National Guard），阻止黑人學生進入小岩城的中央中學；艾森豪總統派出聯邦部隊，強制執行廢除種族隔離。

The same division also lets states try ideas that the nation has not adopted. Justice Louis Brandeis wrote in 1932 that “a single courageous state may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country.” History offers examples. Nine western states had adopted woman suffrage by 1912, years before the Nineteenth Amendment secured the vote for women across the country in 1920. Nebraska has run its legislature with a single chamber since 1937, while every other state has two. An idea that works in one state can be copied by others, and one that fails stays contained.

同樣的分權，也讓各州可以嘗試全國還沒採用的做法。布蘭戴斯大法官在 1932 年寫道：「一個勇敢的州，只要它的公民願意，就可以充當一間實驗室，嘗試新的社會與經濟實驗，而不會危及國家的其他部分。」歷史上有例子：到 1912 年，西部已經有九個州通過了婦女投票權，比 1920 年第十九條修正案替全國的女性確保投票權早了好幾年。內布拉斯加從 1937 年起，州議會只有一院，其他每一州都是兩院。一州行得通的做法，別州可以照著學；行不通的，也只限於那一州。

The result is a country in which the answer to many questions depends on where you live. That variety is one of the purposes of the system, and it is also one of its costs. People who move from one state to another must learn new rules, businesses must follow fifty sets of laws, and a right may seem broader in one state than in the next. Americans have argued since 1787 about which matters should be settled close to home and which deserve one national standard, and the line has moved many times. The map in this lesson shows what that division looks like on a handful of questions that are not matters of party dispute.

結果是：一個國家裡，很多問題的答案取決於你住在哪裡。這種多樣性是這套制度的用意之一，也是它的代價之一。從一州搬到另一州的人得重新學一套規則，企業得遵守五十套法律，同一種權利在這一州和鄰州看起來也可能寬窄不同。從 1787 年起，美國人就一直在爭論哪些事該在離家近的地方決定、哪些事該有全國一致的標準，這條線也移動過很多次。這一課的地圖，用幾個不屬於政黨爭議的題目，讓你看看這種分權是什麼樣子。

Read aloud · 課文朗讀

Questions · 閱讀理解

Explain the difference between enumerated, reserved, and concurrent powers, and give one example of each.

Enumerated powers are the ones the Constitution lists for Congress, such as coining money. Reserved powers are left to the states by the Tenth Amendment, such as running public schools. Concurrent powers belong to both levels at the same time, such as collecting taxes.

In McCulloch v. Maryland, what two questions did the Court answer, and why does each matter for the balance between the national government and the states?

First, could Congress create a bank when the Constitution does not mention one? Yes, because the Necessary and Proper Clause lets Congress choose the means of carrying out its listed powers. This allowed national power to grow beyond the bare list. Second, could Maryland tax the bank? No, because a state may not obstruct a valid federal law, and “the power to tax involves the power to destroy.” This confirmed that valid federal law is supreme over state law.

The reading says that federalism “has been used for good and ill.” Use two examples from the reading, one for each, and explain what they suggest about whether either level of government is automatically the protector of rights.

Sample answer: “States' rights” arguments were used to defend slavery and segregation, but the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 used national power on slavery's side, while some Northern states resisted it. In 1957 federal troops enforced desegregation against a state governor. The examples suggest that neither level is automatically the protector of rights; it depends on what each level does with its power.

Words & Phrases · 生字及片語

federalism(n.)聯邦制Under federalism, power is divided between the national government and the states.在聯邦制之下，權力分屬全國政府與各州。federal(adj.)聯邦的；全國政府的Counterfeiting money is a federal crime.偽造貨幣是聯邦的罪行。enumerated powers(n.)列舉的權力Coining money is one of the enumerated powers of Congress.鑄幣是國會列舉的權力之一。reserved powers(n.)保留的權力Running public schools is one of the reserved powers of the states.辦公立學校是各州保留的權力之一。concurrent powers(n.)共有的權力Taxing and borrowing are concurrent powers.徵稅與舉債是共有的權力。delegate(v.)授予；委託The people delegated certain powers to the national government.人民把某些權力授予全國政府。commerce(n.)貿易；商業Congress may regulate commerce among the states.國會可以管理各州之間的貿易。implied powers(n.)默示的權力The power to create a bank is one of the implied powers of Congress.設立銀行的權力是國會默示的權力之一。jurisdiction(n.)管轄權Most traffic cases fall under the jurisdiction of state courts.大多數交通案件歸州法院管轄。governor(n.)州長Each state elects its own governor.每一州都選出自己的州長。uniform(adj.)一致的；統一的The Constitution gives Congress the power to set a uniform rule of naturalization.憲法授權國會訂定一套全國一致的歸化規則。obstruct(v.)阻撓A state may not obstruct a valid federal law.州不得阻撓有效的聯邦法律。

Quick Check · 小測驗

1. A state wants to issue its own coins to celebrate its anniversary as legal money. Why can't it?

2. The Constitution says nothing about public schools. Under the Tenth Amendment, what follows?

3. Why did Chief Justice Marshall say that “the power to tax involves the power to destroy”?

4. In 1984 Congress did not order the states to raise the drinking age. What did it do instead, and what does this show?

5. Which conclusion is best supported by the history in paragraph six?

Try It in the Model · 在模型裡試試

Four things to watch 四件值得看的事

Then try your own: choose a power that is not in the cards, guess which layer will light up, and check. Click any state to read its values.
接著自己試：選一項卡片裡沒有的權力，先猜哪一層會亮，再按下去看看。點任何一州，可以讀出它的數值。

Only the national layer只有全國那一層

Enumerated powers · 列舉的權力

Money, war, and the rules for becoming a citizen. Watch the gold layer light up while all fifty states dim: on these matters the states have no say of their own.
貨幣、戰爭、入籍的規則。看金色那一層亮起來，五十州全部變暗：在這些事情上，各州沒有自己的決定權。

Only the states只有各州

Reserved powers · 保留的權力

Schools, licenses, and most crimes. Now the gold layer fades and the map lights up: these are the powers the Tenth Amendment leaves to the states.
學校、執照、大部分的罪行。這次金色那一層淡掉，地圖亮起來：這些是第十條修正案留給各州的權力。

Both at once兩層同時

Concurrent powers · 共有的權力

Taxes, courts, and elections. Both layers glow, because both levels act on the same people at the same time, and the Supremacy Clause settles any conflict.
稅、法院、選舉。兩層都亮，因為兩層政府同時作用在同一批人身上；有衝突時由最高條款解決。

Size by people, not by land依人口而不是依土地

Seats in the House, 2020 · 眾議院席次（2020）

The map switches to tiles whose area matches each state's population. Big states on the map can become small tiles, and the reverse. The height shows how many seats each state has in the House of Representatives.
地圖切換成方塊，方塊的面積和各州的人口成正比。在地圖上很大的州，可能變成小方塊；反過來也一樣。高度代表各州在眾議院有幾席。

Try It · 動手試試

Who Decides This? 這件事誰管？

Ten matters. For each one, choose whether it belongs to the national government, to the states, or to both. There is no timer, and you can keep choosing until you find it; the game counts the ones you get on the first try.
十件事。每一題選出它歸全國政府、歸各州，還是兩邊都管。不計時，可以一直選到對為止；遊戲會記下你第一次就答對的題數。

1 of 10 · 第 1 題（共 10 題）

Right on the first try · 第一次就答對 0 / 0

Try It · 動手試試

One Question, Fifty Answers 同一件事，五十種答案

Choose a question and see how the fifty states and the District of Columbia answer it. Switch to tiles to see the states sized by population instead of land. Every figure comes from an official source and carries its year.
選一個題目，看五十州和哥倫比亞特區各自的答案。切換成方塊，州的大小就改依人口而不是土地。每個數字都來自官方來源，並標明年份。

Map: U.S. Census Bureau, 2024 Cartographic Boundary File (cb_2024_us_state_20m), used with acknowledgement of the Census Bureau as the source; projected to Albers USA, with Alaska and Hawaii moved and drawn smaller. Colors avoid party red and blue.地圖：美國人口普查局 2024 年州界檔（cb_2024_us_state_20m），依其規定註明來源；投影為 Albers USA，阿拉斯加與夏威夷搬了位置並縮小。顏色避開代表政黨的紅與藍。

What Does the Text Say? · 條文怎麼寫？

Three clauses this lesson rests on 這一課依據的三段條文

The words are copied from the National Archives transcriptions, with the capital letters and spelling of the originals.
原文照美國國家檔案館的謄本逐字抄錄，保留原文的大寫與拼法。

Tenth Amendment (1791)第十條修正案（1791）
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
本憲法未授予合眾國、也未禁止各州行使的權力，分別保留給各州，或保留給人民。
The amendment does not list any state powers. It describes them by what is left over, so the size of the state's share depends on how broadly the national government's powers are read.這條修正案沒有列出州的任何權力，而是用「剩下的」來描述它們；所以各州的那一份有多大，取決於全國政府的權力被解釋得多寬。
National Archives: The Bill of Rights, a transcription ↗
Article I, Section 8, Clauses 3 and 18 (commerce; necessary and proper)第一條第八項第三款與第十八款（商業條款；必要且適當條款）
To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; … To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
管理與外國、各州之間以及與印第安部族的貿易；……制定為執行上述各項權力，以及本憲法授予合眾國政府或其任何部門、官員的一切其他權力所必要且適當的一切法律。
These two clauses, read together, are the main source of the national government's growth. The word “Commerce” and the phrase “necessary and proper” do not say how far they reach, and that question has been argued in court since McCulloch v. Maryland in 1819.這兩款合在一起讀，是全國政府擴大的主要來源。「貿易」這個字和「必要且適當」這個片語都沒有說它們能延伸多遠；從 1819 年的 McCulloch v. Maryland 案起，這個問題就一直在法院裡爭論。
National Archives: The Constitution, a transcription ↗
Article I, Section 10, Clause 1 (limits on the states)第一條第十項第一款（對各州的限制）
No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
任何一州都不得締結條約、同盟或邦聯；不得頒發捕獲敵船許可狀；不得鑄造貨幣；不得發行信用票據；不得以金銀幣以外的任何物品作為償還債務的法定貨幣；不得通過褫奪公權法案、溯及既往的法律或損害契約義務的法律；也不得授予任何貴族爵位。
The Constitution also limits what the states may do, not only what the national government may do. Several of these limits ended practices that had caused trouble under the Articles of Confederation, when states issued their own money.憲法不只限制全國政府能做什麼，也限制各州。其中幾項限制，終結了《邦聯條例》時期各州自己發行貨幣所造成的麻煩。
National Archives: The Constitution, a transcription ↗

Read the Source · 讀原典

Madison's promise, and Marshall's reading 麥迪遜的承諾，馬歇爾的解讀

Two texts thirty-one years apart. In 1788 Madison assured readers that the new national government would have only a few powers. In 1819 Marshall explained how far those powers reach. Read each slowly before you open the translation; the spelling and punctuation are those of the sources.
兩段相隔三十一年的文字。1788 年，麥迪遜向讀者保證新的全國政府只會有少數幾項權力；1819 年，馬歇爾說明這些權力能延伸多遠。先慢慢讀一遍，再打開中譯；拼法與標點照出處原樣。

Essay, 1788 · 1788 年的文章

The Federalist, No. 45 (excerpt)《聯邦論》第四十五篇（節錄）

By James Madison, signed “Publius.” Printed in a New York newspaper in late January 1788; the editors of Madison's papers date it January 26.麥迪遜著，署名「普布利烏斯」（Publius）。1788 年 1 月底刊登於紐約的一份報紙；《麥迪遜文集》的編者把日期定在 1 月 26 日。

The powers delegated by the proposed constitution to the federal government, are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the state governments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exercised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negociation, and foreign commerce; with which last the power of taxation will for the most part be connected. The powers reserved to the several states will extend to all the objects, which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties and properties of the people; and the internal order, improvement and prosperity of the state.

擬議中的憲法授予聯邦政府的權力，少而明確；仍留在各州政府的權力，多而不定。前者主要行使於對外的事務，如戰爭、和平、談判與對外貿易；徵稅的權力大多和最後這一項相連。保留給各州的權力，則涵蓋日常事務中一切關係到人民的生命、自由與財產，以及各州內部的秩序、改善與繁榮的事項。

Text as given by Founders Online (National Archives), from The Papers of James Madison, which keeps the spelling “negociation.” The Library of Congress text punctuates the passage differently, capitalizes “Constitution” and “State,” and dates the essay January 25. Public domain. The Chinese translation is ours.原文依 Founders Online（美國國家檔案館）收錄的《麥迪遜文集》，保留 negociation 的舊拼法。國會圖書館的文本標點不同、Constitution 與 State 用大寫，日期標為 1 月 25 日。公有領域。中譯為本站所譯。 Founders Online: The Federalist Number 45 ↗Library of Congress: Federalist Nos. 41–50 ↗

Hard words · 難字

delegatedhanded over by the people to someone acting for them（由人民）授予、委託
indefinitenot limited to a fixed list不限於固定清單的；不定的
external objectsmatters concerning other nations對外的事務
negociationnegotiation (an old spelling)談判（舊拼法）
internal orderpeace and good order inside a state內部的秩序

Three questions for a close reading · 三個導讀問題

Madison sorts government business into two kinds. What belongs to each, and which kind affects ordinary people's daily lives more?麥迪遜把政府的事務分成兩類。各屬於哪些事？哪一類比較影響一般人的日常生活？
He was writing to persuade New Yorkers to ratify. Why would the promise that national powers are “few and defined” matter to a reader who distrusted a strong central government?他寫這篇文章是要說服紐約人批准憲法。對一個不信任強大中央政府的讀者來說，「少而明確」這個保證為什麼重要？
Compare this passage with Marshall's words below, written thirty-one years later. Do they describe the same system? Where do they agree, and where might they pull in different directions?把這一段和下面馬歇爾三十一年後寫的話比一比。它們描述的是同一套制度嗎？哪裡一致，哪裡可能往不同的方向拉？

Supreme Court opinion, 1819 · 1819 年的最高法院判決

McCulloch v. Maryland (excerpts)McCulloch v. Maryland（節錄）

Opinion of the Court by Chief Justice John Marshall, February Term, 1819. The Court held that Congress could create the bank and that Maryland's tax on it was “unconstitutional and void.”首席大法官馬歇爾撰寫的法院意見，1819 年二月庭期。最高法院判定國會有權設立這家銀行，馬里蘭對它課稅則「違憲且無效」。

Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consist with the letter and spirit of the constitution, are constitutional.

That the power to tax involves the power to destroy; that the power to destroy may defeat and render useless the power to create; that there is a plain repugnance in conferring on one government a power to control the constitutional measures of another, which other, with respect to those very measures, is declared to be supreme over that which exerts the control, are propositions not to be denied.

只要目的正當、在憲法的範圍之內，那麼一切適當的、明顯適合於那個目的的、不受禁止而且符合憲法的文字與精神的手段，都是合憲的。

課稅的權力包含毀滅的權力；毀滅的權力可以挫敗創造的權力，使它歸於無用；把控制另一個政府的合憲措施的權力，交給一個政府，而另一個政府在這些措施上又被宣告為高於施加控制的一方——這顯然自相矛盾。這些都是不容否認的命題。

Text from the Cornell Legal Information Institute's copy of the opinion. The two paragraphs come from different parts of it. Public domain. The Chinese translation is ours.原文依康乃爾大學法律資訊研究所收錄的判決書；兩段出自判決的不同部分。公有領域。中譯為本站所譯。 Cornell LII: McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. 316 ↗

Hard words · 難字

legitimateallowed; within proper authority正當的；在合法權限內的
plainly adaptedclearly suited明顯適合的
consist withagree with; fit與……相符
repugnancecontradiction; inconsistency矛盾；不相容
propositionsstatements put forward as true命題；主張

Three questions for a close reading · 三個導讀問題

Marshall's first sentence sets out a test with several conditions. List them. Which word or phrase leaves the most room for judgment?馬歇爾的第一句話提出了一個有好幾個條件的檢驗標準。把這些條件列出來。哪一個字或片語留下最多判斷的空間？
Why does Marshall say that letting one government tax another's institutions would be a “plain repugnance”? Which government does he treat as supreme, and on what basis?馬歇爾為什麼說，讓一個政府對另一個政府的機構課稅是「顯然的矛盾」？他把哪一個政府當作最高的？根據什麼？
Madison promised powers that were “few and defined.” Does Marshall's test keep that promise, change it, or explain how to keep it? Give a reason.麥迪遜保證過權力「少而明確」。馬歇爾的檢驗標準是守住了這個承諾、改變了它，還是說明了怎麼守住它？說出一個理由。

The Design Debate · 制度的爭論

Close to home, or one national standard? 離家近的地方決定，還是全國一個標準？

Every federal system has to decide which matters are settled locally and which nationally. Americans have argued about the line since 1787, and it has moved many times. This card states the strongest case for each direction and does not choose between them. It is about the design, not about any particular issue.
每一個聯邦制度都得決定：哪些事在地方決定，哪些事在全國決定。從 1787 年起美國人就在爭論這條線，它也移動過很多次。這張卡把兩個方向各用最強的版本寫出來，不替它們分高下；談的是制度的設計，不是任何一個具體的議題。

When people disagree about how a matter should be handled, should each state be free to decide it for itself, or should there be one rule for the whole country?當人們對一件事該怎麼處理意見不同時，應該讓每一州自己決定，還是應該全國用同一套規則？

One direction · 一個方向

Decide it close to home在離家近的地方決定

People differ from place to place in their circumstances and their values. Fifty decisions can fit fifty states, while one national rule will fit some places badly, and those who dislike a state's choice can move to another.各地的人處境不同、價值觀也不同。五十個決定可以配合五十個州；一條全國的規則，總會讓某些地方很不合身。不喜歡某一州做法的人，也可以搬到別州去。
A state government is closer to the people it governs. Citizens can see it, reach it, and change it more easily than a government far away, so decisions made there are easier to hold to account.州政府離它所治理的人比較近。比起一個遙遠的政府，公民比較看得見它、找得到它，也比較容易改變它，所以在那裡作成的決定比較容易被問責。
States can experiment. A policy tried in one state shows what works before the whole country commits to it, and a mistake made in one state does not become a mistake everywhere.各州可以做實驗。一項政策先在一州試行，可以在全國投入之前看出它行不行得通；一州犯的錯，也不會變成全國都犯的錯。

It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single courageous state may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country.Justice Louis Brandeis, dissenting in New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262 (1932)聯邦制度有一個可喜的好處：一個勇敢的州，只要它的公民願意，就可以充當一間實驗室，嘗試新的社會與經濟實驗，而不會危及國家的其他部分。——布蘭戴斯大法官，1932 年（不同意見書）

Cornell LII: New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann (1932) ↗

Another direction · 另一個方向

Set one national standard訂一個全國的標準

Some things should not depend on where a person happens to live. A citizen's basic rights, and the rules of a market that crosses every state line, call for one standard, applied the same way everywhere.有些事不應該取決於一個人剛好住在哪裡。公民的基本權利，以及一個跨越所有州界的市場的規則，需要一個標準，在每個地方用同樣的方式適用。
A smaller community can make it easier for a local majority to override the rights of a local minority. A national majority is broader and more varied, so it is less likely to share one narrow aim.一個比較小的社群，比較容易讓當地的多數壓過當地少數的權利。全國性的多數範圍更廣、組成更多元，比較不會共有某一個狹隘的目標。
Fifty sets of rules impose real costs. People who move must start over, businesses must comply many times, and states may compete with each other in ways that leave everyone worse off.五十套規則會帶來實實在在的成本：搬家的人得從頭來過，企業得重複遵守很多次，各州之間的競爭也可能讓大家的處境都變差。

Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizens; …James Madison, The Federalist No. 10 (1787)把範圍擴大，就能納入更多樣的派別與利益；全體的多數會共有某種侵犯其他公民權利的動機，就變得比較不可能；……——麥迪遜，《聯邦論》第十篇（1787）

Library of Congress: Federalist Nos. 1–10 ↗

The same person may give different answers for different matters, and the American line has moved in both directions over time. Notice too that the two quotations come from one tradition: Madison helped design the federal system, and Brandeis was defending it. Madison's No. 10 is an argument about the size of a republic, which is why it is often cited on the national side. Which of the arguments above do you find strongest, and on which kinds of questions?同一個人對不同的事，可能給出不同的答案；美國的這條線也曾往兩個方向移動。也請注意：這兩段引言出自同一個傳統——麥迪遜參與設計了聯邦制度，布蘭戴斯則是在為它辯護。麥迪遜的第十篇談的是一個共和國的大小，所以常被引用來支持全國標準這一邊。上面的論點裡，你覺得哪幾個最有力？在哪一類問題上？

Compare with Taiwan · 和台灣比一比

A federal country and a unitary one 聯邦國與單一國

This card compares designs only. It quotes the Constitution of the Republic of China and its Additional Articles from the official Laws and Regulations Database, and it does not say which arrangement is better.
這張卡只比制度的設計，條文引自全國法規資料庫的《中華民國憲法》與《中華民國憲法增修條文》；不評價哪一種安排比較好。

Topic · 項目	United States美國	Republic of China (Taiwan)中華民國（台灣）
The kind of state國家的型態	Federal. Fifty states, each with its own constitution, legislature, governor, and courts. Their powers do not come from Congress.聯邦國。五十州各有自己的憲法、議會、州長與法院；州的權力不是來自國會。	Unitary. The system of local government for provinces and counties is set by law (Additional Article 9). Under the Local Government Act, the province is no longer a self-governing body; self-government rests with the special municipalities, counties, and cities, and the units below them.單一國。省、縣的地方制度以法律定之（增修條文第 9 條）。依《地方制度法》，省已不是地方自治團體；地方自治由直轄市、縣、市及其下的單位行使。
Where the powers are listed權力列在哪裡	The Constitution lists the powers of Congress (Article I, Section 8) and some limits on the states (Article I, Section 10).憲法列出國會的權力（第一條第八項）與對各州的一些限制（第一條第十項）。	The Constitution lists matters for the central government (Article 107), matters the center may hand to provinces and counties to carry out (Article 108), and provincial and county matters (Articles 109 and 110).憲法列出由中央立法並執行的事項（第 107 條）、由中央立法並執行或交由省縣執行的事項（第 108 條），以及省、縣的事項（第 109、110 條）。
Matters not on any list沒有列舉的事項	Reserved to the states, or to the people (Tenth Amendment).保留給各州，或保留給人民（第十條修正案）。	Assigned by their nature: national matters to the central government, provincial to the province, county to the county; disputes are settled by the Legislative Yuan (Article 111).依事務的性質分配：有全國一致之性質者屬於中央，有全省一致之性質者屬於省，有一縣之性質者屬於縣；遇有爭議，由立法院解決（第 111 條）。
The units today現在的單位	Fifty states, plus the District of Columbia, which is not a state.五十州，加上不是州的哥倫比亞特區。	Six special municipalities, thirteen counties, and three cities (Ministry of the Interior, page updated July 2024).6 個直轄市、13 個縣、3 個市（內政部，網頁更新於 2024 年 7 月）。

中華民國憲法　第 111 條Constitution of the Republic of China, Article 111
除第一百零七條、第一百零八條、第一百零九條及第一百十條列舉事項外，如有未列舉事項發生時，其事務有全國一致之性質者屬於中央，有全省一致之性質者屬於省，有一縣之性質者屬於縣。遇有爭議時，由立法院解決之。
Official English translation: “Any matter not enumerated in Articles 107, 108, 109 and 110 shall fall within the jurisdiction of the Central Government, if it is national in nature; of the province, if it is provincial in nature; and of the hsien, if it concerns the hsien. In case of dispute, it shall be settled by the Legislative Yuan.”
全國法規資料庫：中華民國憲法 ↗Laws & Regulations Database: Constitution (English) ↗
中華民國憲法增修條文　第 9 條第 1 項（開頭）Additional Articles of the Constitution, Article 9, Paragraph 1 (opening)
省、縣地方制度，應包括左列各款，以法律定之，不受憲法第一百零八條第一項第一款、第一百零九條、第一百十二條至第一百十五條及第一百二十二條之限制：
Official English translation: “The system of self-government in the provinces and counties shall include the following provisions, which shall be established by the enactment of appropriate laws, the restrictions in Article 108, Paragraph 1, Subparagraph 1; Article 109; Article 112 through Article 115; and Article 122 of the Constitution notwithstanding:”
全國法規資料庫：中華民國憲法增修條文 ↗Laws & Regulations Database: Additional Articles (English) ↗

One thing to notice: both constitutions list some powers and then need a rule for everything else. The United States leaves the remainder to the states; the Constitution of the Republic of China sorts it by the nature of the matter and gives disputes to the Legislative Yuan. The text was checked against the Laws and Regulations Database, and the count of local governments against the Ministry of the Interior, in October 2026.可以注意的一點：兩部憲法都先列舉一些權力，再需要一條規則來處理其餘的事。美國把剩下的留給各州；中華民國憲法則依事務的性質來分，爭議交給立法院解決。條文於 2026 年 10 月對過全國法規資料庫，地方自治團體的數目對過內政部的網頁。

News English · 新聞英語

Eight terms for reading about the states 讀各州新聞用得到的八個詞

Listen to each term and its example sentence, then try making a sentence of your own.
先聽每個詞和例句，再試著自己造一句。

the federal government聯邦政府；全國政府
the national government in Washington, as opposed to the state governments在華盛頓的全國政府，相對於各州政府
Only the federal government can print money.只有聯邦政府可以印鈔票。
state law州法
a law passed by a state legislature, in force only in that state州議會通過、只在那一州有效的法律
Most criminal cases in the United States are tried under state law.在美國，大部分的刑事案件是依州法審理的。
states' rights州權
the powers the states claim against the national government; the phrase was long used to defend slavery and, later, segregation各州相對於全國政府所主張的權力；這個詞長期被用來為奴隸制、後來又為種族隔離辯護
Before the Civil War, arguments for states' rights were used to defend slavery.內戰之前，州權的論點被用來替奴隸制辯護。
to preempt（聯邦法）優先於（州法）
(of a federal law) to take priority over a state law on the same subject（聯邦法律）在同一事項上優先於州法律
A valid federal law can preempt a conflicting state law.有效的聯邦法律可以優先於與它牴觸的州法律。
federal funding聯邦經費
money the national government sends to the states, often with conditions全國政府撥給各州的錢，常常附有條件
In 1984, federal funding for highways was tied to a drinking age of twenty-one.1984 年，聯邦的公路經費被綁上飲酒年齡二十一歲的條件。
jurisdiction管轄權
the authority of a government or a court over a place, a person, or a kind of case政府或法院對某個地方、某個人或某類案件的權限
The case was outside the court's jurisdiction.這個案子不在該法院的管轄範圍內。
governor州長
the elected head of a state's executive branch民選的州行政首長
Every state elects a governor.每一州都選出一位州長。
the Tenth Amendment第十條修正案
the amendment that reserves to the states, or to the people, the powers not delegated to the United States把沒有授予合眾國的權力保留給各州或人民的那一條修正案
The Tenth Amendment was ratified in 1791 as part of the Bill of Rights.第十條修正案在 1791 年作為權利法案的一部分完成批准。

Myth vs. Fact · 常見迷思

Four things people get wrong 四個常見的誤會

✗ Myth · 迷思The states are local branch offices of the government in Washington.各州是華盛頓那個政府在地方的分支機構。

✓ Fact · 事實Each state has its own constitution, elects its own officials, and holds powers that do not come from Congress.每一州都有自己的憲法、自己選出的官員，以及不是來自國會的權力。

✗ Myth · 迷思Whenever federal and state law conflict, the federal law always wins.聯邦法律和州法律衝突時，一定是聯邦法律贏。

✓ Fact · 事實Only a valid federal law wins. The Supremacy Clause covers laws made “in Pursuance” of the Constitution, so a federal law that goes beyond the national government's powers does not displace state law.只有有效的聯邦法律才會贏。最高條款涵蓋的是「依本憲法」制定的法律；超出全國政府權力範圍的聯邦法律，不能取代州法律。

✗ Myth · 迷思The Constitution created the states.各州是憲法創造出來的。

✓ Fact · 事實The thirteen original states existed before the Constitution and ratified it. The other thirty-seven were admitted later by Congress under Article IV.最初的十三州在憲法之前就存在，憲法還是由它們批准的。其餘三十七州是後來由國會依第四條接納加入的。

✗ Myth · 迷思Every state government is built like the federal one.每一州的政府都和聯邦政府一個樣。

✓ Fact · 事實Most are similar, with a governor, two legislative chambers, and courts, but not all. Nebraska's legislature has had only one chamber since 1937, and state constitutions differ widely in length and detail.大多數很像——有州長、兩院制的議會和法院——但不是全部。內布拉斯加的州議會從 1937 年起只有一院；各州憲法的長短與詳細程度也差得很多。

Activity 1 · 課堂或自學活動一

A Day Under Two Governments 兩個政府底下的一天

You need · 準備材料

A sheet of paper divided into three columns: National, State, Both一張分成三欄的紙：全國、州、兩邊都管
The “Who Decides This?” game above, for checking上面的「這件事誰管？」小遊戲，用來核對

Steps · 步驟

Imagine the day of an American high school student: breakfast, the drive or bus ride to school, classes, a letter from a relative abroad, a part-time job, a trip to buy shoes. List ten moments.想像一個美國高中生的一天：早餐、搭車或開車上學、上課、收到國外親戚的信、打工、去買鞋。列出十個時刻。
For each moment, write down one rule that applies to it (for example, the speed limit, the stamp, the sales tax on the shoes).每一個時刻寫下一條適用的規則（例如速限、郵票、買鞋要付的銷售稅）。
Sort the rules into the three columns, then check your guesses against the game and the reading.把這些規則分進三欄，再用小遊戲和課文核對你的猜測。
Discuss: which column is longest? Were any rules hard to place, and why?討論：哪一欄最長？有沒有哪條規則很難歸類？為什麼？

Some rules are made by cities and counties, which are created by the states. Put them in the State column and mark them with an asterisk; Lesson 21 looks at local government.
有些規則是市、郡訂的，而市、郡是由州設立的。把它們放在「州」那一欄並打個星號；第二十一課會談地方政府。

Activity 2 · 課堂或自學活動二

Read the Map, Then Explain It 先讀地圖，再解釋它